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Chapter 11

Introduction to Qualitative Research


Revised - 29 November 2001

| Student Objectives | Outline Content | Application Exercises | Assignments |


FAQs


  1. Student objectives Back to TOP


    1. Discuss the orientation of qualitative research in terms of assumptions about the world, goals, problem formulation, research methods, role of the researcher, nature of the data collected, and context.
    2. State the purposes of the case study design and describe its characteristics.
    3. Describe the logic of purposeful sampling and name and describe the different types of purposeful sampling techniques.
    4. Identify the guidelines for determining sample size in qualitative research.
    5. Name and describe the five research phases of qualitative research.
    6. Explain what is meant by the term "validity of qualitative research design."
    7. Define qualitative design validity and describe the methods used to enhance design validity.
    8. Define disciplined subjectivity and describe the methods used to minimize it.
    9. Define extension of findings and describe the methods used to minimize it.
    10. Identify the ethical guidelines for qualitative research.
    11. Discuss the ethical dilemmas in conducting qualitative fieldwork and how researchers resolve them.
    12. Identify the standards of adequacy for qualitative research.


  2. Cognitive map - see attached sheet


  3. Case design and purposesBack to TOP


    1. Research orientation - see Ch. 1 notes


      1. Assumptions about the world
      2. Research purpose: the goal of qualitative research is to understand social phenomena from the participant's perspective
      3. Problem formulation: inductive and/or emergent nature of problems
      4. Research methods
        1. Multi-method strategies like observation, interviews, document analyses, and artifact collections that ensure flexibility in understanding the multiple realities of the participants
        2. See the following example
      5. Researcher's interactive social role
      6. Context sensitivity: field research in which data is collected over a prolonged time at a site or from individuals (i.e., context bound generalizations)
      7. Narrative data


    2. Case study design


      1. Emergent designs - each incremental research decision depends on prior information
      2. Case study - focus on a single phenomenon (e.g., group of students, school, program, process, etc.)


    3. Purposes of Case Studies

      1. Develop a concept or model


        1. Phenomenology - understanding from the participant's views of their social realities
        2. Grounded theory - links participant's perceptions to social science and suggests new concepts about humans in general


      2. Describe and analyze situations, events, processes
      3. Evaluate programs
      4. Identify policy issues
      5. Contribute to large scale research projects
      6. Serve as a precursor/follow-up to quantitative research
      7. To criticize social and cultural beliefs and practices

  1. Purposeful sampling


    1. Purposeful sampling - select specific information-rich cases for study


    2. Types of sampling strategies - see Table 11.1, p. 399


      1. Site selection
      2. Comprehensive sampling
      3. Maximum variation sampling
      4. Network sampling (snowball sampling)
      5. Sampling by case type (e.g., extreme, typical, unique, reputation, etc.)


    3. Sample Size - related to the purpose of the study, the research problem, data collection techniques, and participant availability


  2. Phases of data collection and analysis strategies - see the following example


    1. Phases - see Figure 11.1, p. 402


      1. Planning
      2. Beginning data collection
      3. Basic data collection
      4. Closing data collection
      5. Completion


  3. Validity of Qualitative Designs


    1. Validity refers to the degree to which explanation of phenomena match the realities of the world.

    1. Qualitative Design Validity: degree to which the interpretations and concepts have mutual meanings between participants and the researcher

      1. Strategies to Enhance Design Validity - see Table 11.2, p. 405


        1. Prolonged and persistent field work
        2. Participant language; verbatim accounts
        3. Low-inference descriptors
        4. Multiple researchers
        5. Mechanically recorded data
        6. Participant researcher
        7. Member checking
        8. Participant review
        9. Negative cases or discrepant data


    2. Disciplined subjectivity in qualitative research

      1. Disciplined subjectivity refers to researcher's rigorous self-monitoring, that is, self-questioning and evaluation of all phases of the research process.

      1. Qualitative objectivity: the ability to depend upon and confirm the researcher's interactive style, data recording, data analysis, and interpretation of participant meanings


      2. Strategies to minimize researcher bias

        1. Peer debriefer
        2. Field log
        3. Field journal
        4. Ethical considerations recorded
        5. Audibility
        6. Formal corroboration of initial findings


    1. Extension of qualitative findings


      1. Use of the study to extend the findings to other studies


      2. Design components to generate extension of findings - see Table 11.4, p. 412

        1. Research role
        2. Informant selection
        3. Social context
        4. Data collection strategies
        5. Data analysis strategies
        6. Authentic narrative
        7. Typicality
        8. Analytical premises
        9. Alternative explanations
        10. Criteria associated with research purpose: phenomenology, grounded theory, or critical traditions


  1. Emerging criteria for qualitative research
    1. Authenticity: faithful reconstruction of participants' multiple perceptions (see five questions listed on p. 417)


    2. Positionality: recognition that any texts are always partial and incomplete and are socially, culturally, historically, racially, and sexually located
    3. Community: suggests that a study serve the purposes of the community in which it was conducted
    4. Voice: argues that qualitative research should articulate for the socially silenced because their views are often counter to the situation
    5. Critical subjectivity: research heightens self-awareness and creates personal and social transformation
    6. Sacredness: researcher must create relationships that are based on mutual respect and dignity
  1. Research ethics


    1. Ethical dilemmas in field work


      1. Research topics can include problematic activities (e.g., criminal actions, abusive behaviors, politically sensitive issues, controversial topics, etc.)
      2. Interactive nature of data collection requires the researcher's involvement in potentially morally problematic situations
      3. Emerging designs require consideration of ethical principles (e.g., recording observations, reporting information to authorities, interference, confidentiality, etc.)
      4. Reciprocity to subjects who participated (e.g., advocacy for issues, time, attention, service, etc.)


    2. Professional guidelines


      1. American Anthropological Association
      2. American Psychological Association
      3. American Educational Research Association
      4. American Sociological Association


    3. Research ethics in fieldwork


      1. Informed consent as a dialogue
      2. Confidentiality and anonymity
      3. Deception, privacy, and empowerment
      4. Harm, caring, and fairness


  2. Standards of adequacy - see McMillan and Schumacher, p. 421


    1. Is the one phenomena to be studied clearly articulated and delimited?
    2. Is the purpose of the case study described?
    3. Which purposeful sampling technique to identify information-rich cases will be used? Does this sampling strategy seem likely to obtain information-rich groups or cases?
    4. Is the desired minimum sample size stated? Does the sample size seem logical to yield rich data about the phenomena within a reasonable length of time?Is the design presented in sufficient detail to enhance validity; that is, does it specify essential strategies such as prolonged field work, collection of verbatim accounts with descriptive data, and negative case search?
    5. Which multiple data collection strategies are planned to increase the agreement on the description of the phenomenon and its meanings between the researcher and participants? Does the researcher have knowledge and experience with the proposed strategies, or has he or she done a preliminary study?
    6. DOes the design suggest the emergent nature of the study?
    7. WHich strategies does the researcher plan to employ to enhance disciplined subjectivity?
    8. Which design components are included to encourage the usefulness and the logical extension of the findings?
    9. Does the researcher specify how informal consent, confidentiality, anonymity, and other ethical principles will be handled in the field?


  3. Application problemsBack to TOP


    1. See Problems 1-5, p. 424-425


    2. The following questions or statements are designed to help focus your attention on several important issues in the chapter. Answer each question in a succinct manner.


      1. What is the orientation of qualitative research in terms of assumptions about the world, research purpose, research methods, researcher role, and context?
      2. How does a researcher plan a qualitative study?
      3. Briefly state the purposes of case study design.
      4. Why do researchers use purposeful sampling?
      5. Briefly describe the four different types of purposeful sampling.
      6. Briefly describe the five phases of data collection and analysis.
      7. Describe the strategies that researchers use to enhance design validity.
      8. Describe the strategies that researchers use to enhance disciplined subjectivity.
      9. What methods do researchers use so that their findings can be extended to other studies?
      10. How do researchers resolve ethical dilemmas?


    3. From the descriptions provided below, indicate from the following list the type of sampling: comprehensive, maximum variation, network, and sampling by case type.


      1. A researcher selects the highest and lowest ranked teacher to observe.
      2. Jane was selected to be interviewed on the basis of responses from Joe's interview
      3. The researchers designed their study of counselor education programs to include every possible type of program


    4. What strategies to enhance design validity are addressed in each of the following situations?


      1. The researcher describes in some detail the environment in which the observations occur.
      2. A strong rationale is provided in a study of at-risk students to determine the factors that need to be investigated.
      3. From reading an ethnographic study, it is apparent that both interviews and observations were used to collect information.


    5. In a study on college-student values, students were divided into groups and given a variety of topics to discuss. The groups were video-taped and reviewed by other researchers. The students reviewed the initial draft of the results written by the researchers. What strategies have the researchers used to enhance design validity?


    6. For each of the following research studies below, indicate the strategy used to minimize researcher bias.
      1. A researcher initiated a study with students in the teacher education program at a medium sized state university. Specifically the research focused on how students formed their conceptions on what it means to be a good teacher. Fifteen students were selected to participate in the study. The researcher examined the student's folders in order to learn more about them, and also interviewed the students periodically during the three year program to find our what had the greatest influence on their perspectives about teaching. The interviews lasted about a half hour each, after which the researcher made notes on what was communicated.


      2. A study investigated the socialization process of children at different types of day care facilities. Over a six month period, the four researchers interviewed the staff and the parents and took turns to observe each site several times.

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